By the 9th century, eastern Indian artists during the Pala Dynasty (750–1161) had developed a visual vocabulary for the depiction of various wrathful and protective deities associated with early esoteric formulations of Buddhist doctrine and practice. Such deities are often terrifying to behold in later Vajrayana Buddhist art. Pala artists portrayed them more benignly, as can be seen in this 9th-century sculpture of Jñana (Wisdom) Mahakala (Great Black One). Such images, complex in iconography and symbolism, derived from much earlier representations of bodhisattvas with fierce dwarf attendants. While these attendant figures have parallels in the personified weapons of Hindu gods, in a Buddhist context they represent a bodhisattva’s protective powers. Mahakala holds a flaying knife (kartrika) and the sword of transcendental wisdom (prajna) in his right hands, weapons to destroy obstacles on the Buddhist path. In his left hands, he holds a ritual staff (khatvanga) and an offering cup. Two offering bowls are on the plinth flanking him. On the base are the donor monk and a censer. The image is surrounded by an aureola of flames. The dedicatory inscription on the lotus pedestal reads, Success! This is a meritorious gift of Nanudika, the son of Shoañjana. (Translation by Gouriswar Bhattacharya.)

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