Animals have been depicted in Indian art since the prehistoric period. The great emperor Ashoka Maurya (reigned c. 272–c. 231 BCE) appropriated the regal power and majesty of the bull, elephant, horse, and lion to embellish the capitals of numerous symbolic stone pillars erected across South Asia. The buffalo was also accorded great reverence. It was originally worshipped by totemistic cults and later glorified in religious literature and art. Cows were also adulated, especially for their association with the cowherd Krishna (Vishnu’s avatar) and the major devotional movement of Hinduism. Serpents may have been worshipped with the most fervor because they were believed to rule the underworld and to be imbued with supernatural powers. They were propitiated as protective entities and also received offerings from women to enhance their fertility. Horses have long been particularly venerated in the distinctive culture of south India. This is primarily because the horse is the sacred mount of one of the major gods of south India, Aiyanar, who is the chief guardian deity of almost all south Indian Hindus. Consequently, images of horses are often erected at the boundaries of temples, palaces, and villages to represent Aiyanar, and thereby protect the sacred space and community within. Horses, along with elephants, are also prominently featured in many south Indian religious festival processions, both living animals and their life-size images. See also M.88.223.