Jeseokcheon (Sanskrit: Indra) and Beomcheon (Sanskrit: Brahma) are two from a group of Buddhist guardian deities known as Sinjung. They appear when Buddha preaches, praising the Dharma – or the Buddha’s Law – along with other sacred divinities who swear to protect the Buddha’s teaching. Originally Indian folk deities, they were influenced by the Buddha’s compassion and converted to Buddhism. Since then, they have played a role in safeguarding the Dharma. As Buddhism spread throughout many countries, the folk deities in each country and Daoist deities of China were assimilated into the Buddhist pantheon. Paintings of these divinities were often produced separately from Buddhist paintings and worshipped independently. In addition to protecting the Dharma, Jeseokcheon, Beomcheon, and Witaecheon (Sanskrit: Skanda) were originally venerated for safeguarding countries, eradicating evil and averting disasters. In eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Korea, they were instead revered as deities that granted fortunes, prevented calamities, and protected Buddhist temples. Many paintings of guardians were produced at that time in Korea, and their compositions varied. Some depicted only the three primary guardian deities – Jeseokcheon, Beomcheon, and Witaecheon – with a few attendants, as in the painting of Buddhist guardians from 1859 at Daeseung Temple, North Gyeongsang province (fig. 1); others included large assemblies, exemplified by the group of guardians from 1803 at Gimryong Temple, North Gyeongsang province[1] (fig. 2). The composition in LACMA’s painting, dated 1891, includes a smaller group of attendants.[2] The elaborately decorated red crowns and the green nimbuses indicate that Jeseokcheon (right) and Beomcheon (left) are depicted in bodhisattva forms (det. 1). Jeseokcheon, shown holding a lotus flower, is the Buddhist personification of lightning; in ancient Indian mythology, he oversees sun, thunder, and rain. With his arms of thunder, iron hook, and net of Indra, he is said to have conquered all the devils. After defeating Asura, a god of war, he earned the highest position in the Indian pantheon. However, he was so moved by Buddha’s preaching that he converted to Buddhism. As a governor of Doricheon (Sanskrit: Trayastrimsa), a Buddhist heaven located atop Sumeru – the central world mountain in Buddhist cosmology – Jeseokcheon protected the Dharma and led many celestial figures and the Four Guardian Kings. In Korean paintings of Buddhist guardians, Jeseokcheon is described as a bodhisattva rather than a warrior. The depiction of Beomcheon, who holds what appears to be a peony, is very similar to that of Jeseokcheon. It is difficult to distinguish the two deities, who have appeared together on paintings since the late Joseon dynasty. Beomcheon, originally the god of creation in Indian Brahmanism, was also absorbed into Buddhism and, along with Jeseokcheon, became a guardian of Buddha’s law. Originally a god in Indian Brahmanism, Witaecheon here stands between and below Jeseokcheon and Beomcheon (det. 2). He was made protector of the Buddha’s law at the scene of the Buddha’s death, and he was worshipped especially as a guardian deity of Buddhist temples. He was also venerated as a leader of the celestial army or as a deity who removed all evils. He is shown wearing armor and a gilt helmet decorated with feathers. He is typically depicted with his hands clasped and his arms supporting a sword, but here he rests upon a weapon. Flanking Witaecheon are the Four Guardian Kings. They have beards and glowering eyes, and they are also attired in armor. Beautiful women, boy monks, and two elderly men stand on either side of Jeseokcheon and Beomcheon. The elderly man on the right, near Jeseokcheon, wears a transparent black hat; he is a mountain god, who is said to repel evil spirits, eliminate disasters, and grant fortunes. The elderly man on the left, near Beomcheon, wears a hempen hood; he is a kitchen god. A popular folk deity among women, the kitchen god protects families and family members who are traveling. Some Chinese Daoist and folk deities were included in the Buddhist pantheon and worshipped along with Buddhist deities. In this painting, the integration is evident in the attire and hairstyles of the attending figures, which are modeled on Chinese Daoist figures. The inscription at the bottom gives the names of the work’s sponsors, who wished to meet Amita (Sanskrit: Amitabha) Buddha and, with their pious contribution of this artwork, attain Buddhahood (det. 3). The inscription also indicates that the painting was produced by head monk painter Seobong Eungsun, with the assistance of Hyesan Chukyeon and other monks in 1891. Hyesan Chukyeon was a well-known monk painter active between the late nineteenth and early twentieth century in the area of the Geumgang (or “diamond”) mountains. He is famous for his inventive iconography and use of chiaroscuro, and many of his paintings can be found in major temples around Korea.[3] The LACMA painting is among the artist’s early works from the late nineteenth century. Although his style had not matured, the work shows delicacy and is well painted. Footnotes [1] In addition to the 1803 painting of thirty-nine Buddhist guardians in Gimryong Temple in North Gyeongsang province, there is an 1862 painting of 124 Buddhist guardians in Hae’in Temple in South Gyeongsang province. [2] Paintings depicting Jeseokcheon, Beomcheon, and Witaecheon with guardians and attendants were most popular in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In addition to the work from 1859 in Daeseung Temple in North Gyeongsang province, there is a painting from 1893 in Hae’in Temple in South Gyeongsang province. [3] Representative works by Hyesan Chukyeon of Buddhist guardians include a 1913 painting in Yongju Temple in Gyeonggi province and a 1916 painting in Jeondeung Temple in Incheon province. Another work, from 1926, depicting sixteen lohans is in Tongdo Temple in South Gyeongsang province. Bibliography Buddhist Cultural Properties Research Institute. Korean Buddhist Painting [Hanguk ui bulhwa], vol. 1-40. Daejeon: Buddhist Cultural Properties Research Institute, 1996-2006. Gang, Mingi. Understanding Korean Art Culture [Hanguk misul munwha ui ihae]. Seoul: Yegyeong, 1994. Kim, Bohyeong. “Study of Witaecheon Iconography [Witaecheon dosang yeongu].” Dongak Art History 4, Seoul, 2003. Kim, Jeonghee. Buddhist Guardians [Sinjangsang]. Seoul: Daewonsa, 1989. ———. “Studies of Paintings of Buddhist Guardians during the Joseon Dynasty [Joseon sidae sinjang taenghwa ui yeongu (I, II).” Korean Buddhist Painting [Hanguk ui bulhwa], vol. 4-5. Daejeon: Buddhist Cultural Properties Research Institute, 1997. Lee, Seunghee. “Study of Buddhist Guardian Paintings in Late Joseon Dynasty [Joseon hugi Sinjung taenghwa dosang ui yeongu].” Misulsahak yeongu 228, 2000. Mun, Myeongdae. Korean Buddhist Painting [Hanguk ui bulwha]. Seoul: Yeolwha-dang, 1977. Exhibitions Drawing on Faith. Seoul, KOR, Dongguk University Museum; Los Angeles, CA, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, August 21, 2003 - January 11, 2004.